![]() ![]() Magic squares were made known to Europe through translation of Arabic sources as occult objects during the Renaissance, and the general theory had to be re-discovered independent of prior developments in China, India, and Middle East. In India, all the fourth-order pandiagonal magic squares were enumerated by Narayana in 1356. Around this time, some of these squares were increasingly used in conjunction with magic letters, as in Shams Al-ma'arif, for occult purposes. By the end of 12th century, the general methods for constructing magic squares were well established. 983, the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity ( Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa). Specimens of magic squares of order 3 to 9 appear in an encyclopedia from Baghdad c. ![]() The first dateable instance of the fourth-order magic square occur in 587 CE in India. The third order magic square was known to Chinese mathematicians as early as 190 BCE, and explicitly given by the first century of the common era. Iron plate with an order 6 magic square in Eastern Arabic numerals from China, dating to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).
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